The History of Modern Zoology
Humans Have an Ancient and Ongoing Fascination With Animals
Zoology (Gr. zoon, animal + logos, to study) is the study of the animal world. Humans have always held a special bond with the animal realm. Mute testimony to this ancient and on-going fascination with animals can be found deep within caves in France and Spain. Cast in yellow ochre, red hematite, and black charcoal, primal figures of antelope, bison, horse, deer, lion, and bear seem to spring to life from the shadows.
The Beginnings of Zoology
Zoology as a science arose in the time of the Greeks. In his work, History of Animals, written around 350 B.C., Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) presented the known “facts” for about 500 animals. Though riddled with errors, it was the grandest biological anthology of its time and served as the ultimate authority on all matters zoological for many centuries after his death.
Aristotle’s observations on the anatomy of marine invertebrates such as the octopus, cuttlefish and others were remarkably accurate and lead us to conclude that he must have had first-hand experience with dissection. He delved into the social organization of bees, described the embryological development of a chick, and the chambered stomachs of ruminants. He distinguished whales and dolphins from fish and noted that some sharks give birth to live young as well.
Aristotle’s Roman counterpart was Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.). In 77 A.D., this cavalry officer turned historian and scientist published the first ten books of his Naturalis Historia, a work that would eventually grow to 37 books after his death. As with Aristotle’s work, Pliny’s dissertations served as authority for many generations of scholars that followed.
Christianity Dominates Science and Society
With the fall of the Roman Empire, Christianity dominated the development of western civilization. It was a time of focus on the Bible and things religious rather than on science and things secular. Nevertheless, during this time a book called the Physiologus became widespread and second only to the Bible in popularity. Written in Greek by an unknown source around 200-300 A.D. in Egypt, this book depicted 49 separate animals, many of which were mythological.
In the period of 1300-1500 A.D., the veil of darkness began to lift from Europe. The enlightenment of the Renaissance heralded a renewed interest in things natural and scientific as well as a curiosity of distant lands. A new age of science had begun.
The Renaissance Gives Rise to Modern Science
The religious and social climate of the time promoted the spread of medieval bestiaries in which fictional creatures were storied and illustrated. Fueling the popularity and spread of these bestiaries were travel stories from the first European explorers such as Marco Polo, Sir John Mandeville, and others.
As the age of exploration continued apace in the 1500’s and 1600’s, individuals with at least some rudimentary scientific training often began to accompany voyages of exploration and conquest for the sole purpose of observing and recording the creatures of distant lands and returning specimens of those creatures, when possible, to their homeland for further study. The age of the naturalist collector had begun.
Verification by collecting specimens instead of the accumulation of anecdotes, myths, and legends became more common, and scholars developed the faculty of careful observation. These early collectors and accumulators were the founders of zoology, and to this day, their modern naturalist, museum curator, and systematist counterparts play an important role in the continuing progress of zoology.
Evolving separately at that time was comparative anatomy in which anatomists and physiologists began to study the internal structure and functions of humans (the dawn of modern medicine) and other animals. While arising somewhat separately in the beginning, it is now generally recognized that zoology and comparative anatomy are essentially synonymous with modern zoologists studying the anatomy (inside), morphology (outside), and ecology (habitat) of animals.
During the period of 1600-1800 the final piece of the foundation of modern zoology was placed when accurate observations and collected specimens began to be coupled with rigorous experimental methods into the structure and behavior of animals.
Present day zoologists can be found both in the field observing and experimenting on animals as well as searching for new species of animals. They are also in the laboratory examining the inner workings of animals and conducting controlled research activities. Zoologists may also be found in museums and natural history collections where they identify, catalog, and maintain important specimens. However, the main activity of zoologists working in museums is actually studying the evolutionary relationships among groups of animals and in this regard these scientists are at the very heart of evolutionary biology.
Whether they work with specimens of the past or animals of the present, all zoologists recognize the need for conservation and work tirelessly to maintain the robust animal species and to protect the endangered ones.
Zoology has its Roots in Antiquity
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